19. The Mongols - Terror of the Steppe
Horse Domestication: A Revolution on Hooves
The domestication of the horse, occurring around 6,000 years ago, revolutionized life on the steppe. Initially hunted for food, horses eventually allowed humans to ride, dramatically increasing travel speed and range. This enabled herders to manage larger flocks, establish bigger social groups, and develop a mobile way of life distinct from settled agricultural societies. The Proto-Indo Europeans, emerging from the steppe, spread this innovation, along with their language, across Eurasia, leaving a lasting linguistic legacy.
The Steppe's Harsh Divide
The southern Mongolian steppe supported richer nomadic groups like the Tartars and Kereyit due to better grazing lands, while the Mongols in the north faced meager resources, relying on hunting and fishing, leading to a fragmented and impoverished existence.
Mongol Origins: Myth and Reality
The Mongols' founding myth involves a wolf and a deer mating near Lake Baikal, leading to a royal lineage, as recounted in 'The Secret History of the Mongols.' This contrasts with their historical reality of disunity and poverty, worshipping Tengri and the Earth Mother.
Temujin and Jamuka: A Year of Brotherhood and Growing Resentment
After the Merkit incident, Temujin and his family sought refuge with Jamuka, his blood brother. They lived and fought together as equals for about a year and a half, with Jamuka likely mentoring Temujin in leadership and warfare. However, Temujin began to perceive resentment from Jamuka, culminating in Jamuka assigning Temujin the demeaning task of guarding sheep, signaling a souring of their relationship and leading Temujin to consider leaving.
Temujin's Innovative Leadership and Growing Popularity
When Temujin decided to leave Jamuka's camp, he was surprised by the loyalty he had inspired, with half of Jamuka's followers choosing to join him. This popularity stemmed from his reputation for generosity and a radical new system of distributing loot based on merit, rather than the traditional elite-first approach. He also implemented policies like providing for widows and orphans, reflecting his own past hardships and fostering deep loyalty among his followers.
Chinggis Khan's Reforms: From Clan to Military State
Chinggis Khan fundamentally restructured Mongol society by dismantling the old clan system, which fostered infighting, and replacing it with a decimal military organization (arban, zagun, mingan, tumen). This created a disciplined, meritocratic force, promoting coordination and loyalty to the Khan above tribal affiliations. This military reorganization was crucial for the empire's subsequent expansion and administration.
The Great Law (Yassa): Codifying Mongol Society
To bring order and unity, Chinggis Khan introduced the Yassa, a written legal code that addressed issues like kidnapping, slavery (among Mongols), and animal theft. This code also promoted religious tolerance, respecting learned individuals of all faiths, a radical concept for the era. The Yassa aimed to end cycles of vengeance and create a cohesive society under Mongol rule.
The Siege of Beijing
The Mongols laid siege to the heavily fortified Jin capital of Beijing (Zhongdu) in 1214. Despite its immense defenses and population, the Jin Emperor, facing internal strife and external pressure, ultimately sued for peace, ceding vast tribute and recognizing Chinggis Khan's supremacy. However, the Emperor's subsequent flight to Kaifeng was perceived as a betrayal, leading to the Mongols' return and the brutal sacking of Beijing in 1215. This event shattered the Jin Dynasty's authority north of the Yellow River, leaving a landscape of destruction and fragmented warlordism. The city's fall marked a significant victory for the Mongols, enriching them immensely and demonstrating their formidable military prowess against even the most formidable urban defenses. The aftermath saw widespread devastation, with historical accounts detailing immense loss of life and the repurposing of valuable resources by the victorious Mongols.
The Otrar Incident: A Fatal Miscalculation
Chinggis Khan, having secured peace with the Jin, sought to expand trade relations westward. He sent a large trade delegation to the Khwarazmian Empire, led by an Indian merchant named Jafar. Upon arrival at the border town of Otrar, the governor, Inalchuq (an uncle of the Khwarazm-Shah), seized the merchants' goods and killed them, possibly on the Shah's orders or acting on his own avarice. This act of aggression, compounded by the Khwarazm-Shah's subsequent execution of one of Chinggis Khan's ambassadors and the humiliation of two others, ignited Chinggis Khan's fury. This incident, viewed as a profound insult and a betrayal of trust, directly led to Chinggis Khan's decision to launch a full-scale invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire in 1219, setting the stage for one of history's most devastating conquests. The magnitude of Inalchuq's mistake was immense, effectively dooming the entire Khwarazmian world.
The Scourge of God in Bukhara
Chinggis Khan entered Bukhara, a major religious center, and, after desecrating the great mosque by using it as a stable for his horses, declared himself the 'scourge of God,' attributing the city's destruction to its people's sins. The citizens were then forced to dismantle their own defenses before the citadel fell, leading to a brutal aftermath for the defenders but sparing the general populace who surrendered.
Nishapur's Vengeance and Utter Destruction
The citizens of Nishapur revolted after the Mongols initially departed, killing the governors left behind. When the Mongols returned, the city's fate was sealed when an arrow killed Chinggis Khan's son-in-law, Tokachar. In retribution, Chinggis Khan's widowed daughter ordered the city's complete annihilation, with every living thing, including animals, put to death, and the site leveled for plowing.
The Great Khan's Final Campaign and Mysterious Death
Chinggis Khan's final military campaign against the rebellious Tanguts in 1227 ended with his death, attributed to illness exacerbated by the harsh desert climate. While myths abound, historical accounts suggest a sudden fever, possibly even the plague, led to his demise. His burial was conducted with extreme secrecy, reflecting Mongol taboos around death and a desire to protect his resting place.
Ogedei's Succession and the Founding of Karakorum
Following Chinggis Khan's death, his son Ogedei was installed as Great Khan in 1229. Unlike his father, Ogedei embraced a vision of a settled empire, initiating the construction of a grand capital city, Karakorum, in the heart of Mongolia. This marked a significant departure from the nomadic traditions, aiming to centralize administration and project imperial power through monumental architecture.
The Devastation of Kiev
The Mongol invasion of Russia culminated in the brutal sacking of Kiev in December 1240. The city's defenses crumbled after nine days of bombardment, leading to a massacre where an estimated 48,000 of its 50,000 inhabitants perished, leaving the region in ruin for decades. The Novgorod Chronicle vividly describes the ensuing famine and desperate measures for survival. Giovanni da Pian del Carpine later described Kiev as reduced to scarce 200 houses, its inhabitants enslaved. This devastation marked a profound setback for Russian urban development and economic stability. The final sentence emphasizes the sheer scale of destruction and its long-lasting impact on the region.
Europe's Fear of the 'Tartars'
As Mongol armies advanced westward into Poland and towards Germany in 1241, rumors and fear spread throughout Europe. The name 'Tartars' itself evoked terror, leading to speculation that they hailed from hell or were a lost tribe of Israel. This panic fueled deadly pogroms against Jewish communities across the continent, as people lashed out against the defenseless. Matthew of Paris contributed to these fears, attempting to reconcile the Mongols' actions with religious prophecies. The appearance of a fiery comet and a solar eclipse further intensified beliefs that the end times were near. The final sentence highlights how fear and religious interpretation amplified the psychological impact of the Mongol threat. The narrative acknowledges that the northern force was a diversion, with the true target being Hungary. The final sentence underscores the pervasive fear and misinterpretations that gripped Europe.
Hulagu's Conquest of Baghdad
In 1258, Hulagu Khan, responding to the Caliph Al-Mustasim's disrespect, led a massive Mongol force, including Chinese siege engineers, to destroy the Abbasid Caliphate. Despite Baghdad's formidable defenses, the Mongols breached them using innovative tactics like launching date palm trunks. The ensuing sack of the city resulted in widespread slaughter, pillaging, and destruction, effectively ending the 500-year rule of the Abbasid Caliphate.
The Death of Mongke Khan and Succession Crisis
The death of Great Khan Mongke in 1259, likely from disease during the siege of Diaoyu Castle in China, marked a critical turning point. This event prevented the unified Mongol Empire from reaching its maximum territorial extent and led to a devastating civil war. Instead of returning to Mongolia to elect a new leader, Mongke's brothers, Hulagu, Kublai, and Ariq Boke, each claimed their own territory, fracturing the empire into four successor states: the Ilkhanate, the Golden Horde, the Chaghatai Khanate, and the Great Khanate under Kublai.
Kublai Khan's Unification of China
Kublai Khan achieved the historic feat of uniting all of China under Mongol rule for the first time in 400 years, implementing measures like the Grand Canal to stabilize the war-torn land and facilitate the transport of vital resources from the south to the famine-stricken north. However, this unification also highlighted the immense challenge of ruling such a complex and populous empire, especially as a small Mongol minority.
The Identity Crisis of Mongol China
The Yuan Dynasty faced a profound identity crisis, with a tiny Mongol elite ruling over tens of millions of Han Chinese. This led to a rigid social hierarchy, relegating Han Chinese to fourth-class citizenship and restricting their access to powerful positions. This policy alienated the native population and diluted the empire's Mongol character, as its military increasingly relied on Chinese soldiers, raising questions about who had truly conquered whom.
Europe's Unforeseen Gains
Despite not being conquered, Europe reaped immense benefits from the Mongol Empire's global system. This included access to trade routes, technological advancements, and a broader understanding of the world, significantly accelerating its development and standard of living after centuries of isolation.
